In addition, blood flow velocity in the middle cerebral artery decreases during synchronized sleep whereas in desynchronized sleep it is similar to that occurring in waking (133). 53. The tonic inhibition of motoneurons by circuits in the alphacoeruleus nucleus during desynchronized sleep is mediated by hyperpolarization of their membrane (41-43). HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help 56. 4. The function of dreaming Theories on the function of REM sleep and dreaming, with which it has a contingent relationship, remain diverse. They include facilitation of memory storage, reverse learning, anatomical and functional brain maturation, catecholamine restoration, psychoanalytical (wish fulfilment or otherwise). It i Electrical potentials recorded from the medial vestibular nuclei precede eye movements by 20 to 30 milliseconds, which points to these nuclei as the last synaptic stations in the pathway that produces eye movements during desynchronized sleep. The posterior areas affected in this syndrome are the visual areas V3, V3a and V4 (97). Kahn D, Pace-Schott EF, Hobson JA. Exp Brain Res 1989;74:11-23. (eds. Frequency clearly increases and becomes regular, as compared with the trend before oniric activity. Doneshka P, Kehaiyov A. Table 1 shows the results of some of such studies, including our data concerning nearly 2,000 dreaming episodes recorded from rats. 128. The narrower is the angle of rotation, the lower is the recorded potential, which happens when attention is being directed to a very small part of the object or when the object is very near. 111. 8600 Rockville Pike Berlucchi G. Mechanismen von Schlafen und Wachen. However, they ignored that the dreams were produced by the brain. 60. Erlbaum 1992. Maquet P, Pters J, Aerts J, Delfiore G, Degueldre C, Luxen A, Franck G. Nature. Brain Develop 1994;16:81-91. Mirmiran M, Van den Dungen H, Uylings HBM. In humans the electro-oscillograms during desynchronized sleep are expressed as overall cortical desynchronization, whence the adequacy of the name created by Moruzzi, desynchronized sleep. Respiratory frequency decreases during the entire sleep cycle but is phasically activated during dreaming because it is a vegetative function that has to be increased in any behavior, including the oniric ones. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Although it has not been shown that the alpha-coeruleus nuclei are lesioned in these patients, it is tempting to consider that their lesion underlies such sleep disturbance. No wonder that most dreams in humans have a visual component, explaining the reason why eye movements occur in any kind of dream, alone or as part of non-visual dreams. J Physiol (London) 1993;461:549-63. 2009 Nov;10(11):803-13. doi: 10.1038/nrn2716. 120. During wakefulness such periods in rats are concomitant with short but complete immobilization, which is well known to occur when a high degree of attention is being directed to some external object. Gottesman C, Gandolfo G, Zernicki B. Such electrophysiological studies demonstrate that the abovementioned sites in the central nervous system are involved in the oniric movements but they do not prove that such structures generate them. Our experience with eye movements in rats (30-32) and cats (33) shows, however, that eye movements are sometimes asymmetric but in other occasions they tend to be of the scanning kind. The other is that dreams are caused by forebrain activation by dopamine. New findings on the neurological organization of dreaming: implications for psychoanalysis. Milbrandt J. Moruzzi's coined the name desynchronized sleep, which we prefer, because in humans desynchronization is the main electrophysiological marker of this phase. Moruzzi G. Active processes in the brain stem during sleep. Many studies performed during the eighteenth century confirmed such statement (4,7). In both instances sleep evolved according to the phases of synchronized and then of desynchronized sleep, during which eye movements always occurred. In: M. C. Hepp-Reymond & G. Marini (eds.) In nocturnal macrosmatic animals, olfaction is the predominant sensory channel and their vibrissae are usually very long, to detect the presence of objects at relatively large distances. Braz J Med Biol Res 1996;29:1645-50. It seems that not only humans but also dogs, cows, sheep and goats and the entire family of four-legged viviparous animals do dream. Eye movements in born-blinds are probably due to a quite different reason. Gottesmann C. Theta rhythm: the brain stem involvement. Roffwarg et al. In Greece dreams were called oneiros, a word that originated the adjective oniric but that meant not exactly what was dreamed about neither the dreaming process, which was not rated as something important, but the phantasmata, i.e. Control of upper airway motoneurons during REM sleep. 25. Much experimental work is needed before a convincing function can be ascribed to the fascinating physiological phenomenon that is dreaming. Arch Ital Biol 1969;107:175-216. It should be recalled here that, comparing the dream content in humans with events of the previous day, Calkins found in 1876 that nearly 89% of the reported dreams were closely related to such events. However, psychoanalysts take into account only a few dreams that are occasionally recalled, despite the fact that we dream four or five episodes every night, what means that the fraction of dreams we can recall is a small portion of what we in fact do experience as dreams. Christy B, Nathans D. DNA binding site of the growth factor-inducible protein Zif268. 28. 73. J Sleep Res 1993;2:188-92. It seems that a systematic investigation regarding the threshold to different types of stimulation is still lacking and should be performed, in order to establish which kinds of stimulation and effective thresholds are able to awaken humans and non-humans during sleep. Our data with rats are quite consistent as to the variation of blood pressure and heart rate during oniric activity. 118. Vision is our predominant sensory channel, so much so that if we hear a sound we immediately convey the eyes to the source of the sound, trying to identify its origin, even if vision is absent. Physiol Behav 1970;5:402-7. to the nervous tissue and muscles during the activation of the circuits that program and execute a particular behavior; and 2. These interneurons inhibit motoneurons by means of glycinergic synapses (glycine is a powerful inhibitory neurotransmitter), as shown by Soja et al. Brain Res Bull 1992;28:479-84. (ed. 23. 122. The hypothesis has been recently put forward by Revonsuo (2000) that the function of dreaming is to simulate threatening events, and to rehearse threat perception and threat avoidance (111). 89. Hernndez-Pen R. A neurophysiologic model of dreams and hallucinations. Neurology 1999;53:2193-5. Marini G. Motor phenomena during sleep. In non-human animals the report regarding dreams is obviously impossible but, fortunately, a dream can be detected in both humans and other species by analyzing its motor, vegetative and electrophysiological manifestations, as will be described below. De Sanctis, whose main research on sleep was the incorporation of sensory stimulation into dreams, states in his book that "by measuring the pulse and observing the movements in humans and other animals during sleep it is possible to detect the occurrence of dreaming and sometimes even to guess the dream content". For instance, zif-268 has been shown to induce the expression of a synapse-specific protein, synapsin II (101), and has been linked to the induction of hippocampal long-term potentiation (102,103) and other plasticity phenomena. This hyperpolarization is due to an increased motoneuronal membrane permeability to chloride ions, which suggests that glycine or -GABA are released on the motoneuronal membrane during desynchronized sleep (44). However, we still do not know why most motor units are inactivated while a few ones are mobilized, causing real but incoherent and non-efficient movements. Brain Res 1982;233:287-98. 125. This may be related to the presence of pet animals in most families in the Western countries and consequently this "subject" probably becomes the main thought of children. Hobson, Pace-Schott & Stickgold (2000) do not take into consideration that a single object or a brief key fact or image occurring in the day preceding a given dream may be enough to trigger an entire dreamed "story" related to it (120). Kleitman N. Sleep and Wakefulness. 3. Klein M, Michel F, Jouvet M. tude polygraphique du sommeil chez les oiseaux. 6. Gardner Jr R, Grossman WI, Roffwarg HP, Weiner H. The relationship of small limb movements during REM sleep to dreamed limb action. Esquirol, one of the French psychiatrists who started the revolution that changed the ancient (an cruel) view of the mental diseases, spent several hours at night observing how his patients behaved during sleep and concluded that their movements while asleep were related to their dreams, just as Aristotle had found long ago. At the age between 7 and 9 years Foulkes' subjects produced much more consistent narrations of the dream content, as should be expected (24). 123. Neurosc Biobehav Rev 1992;16:372-97. 127. Kluger J. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies Experientia 1964;20:1-3. World Fed Sleep Res Soc Newsletter 1997;5:22-3. At the end of the 19th century several authors published on oniric activity. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal In 1896 Weed & Halam (4) published the first quantification of dreams content. 71. Brain activity during this time keeps us Muscle atonia during desynchronized sleep is, as stated above, generated in the alpha-coeruleus nucleus and involves both direct and indirect pathways that inhibit the motoneurons. If this hypothesis is correct, it is no surprise that the phases of wakefulness and sleep are expressed in the cerebellar cortex by means of electrophysiological potentials. Science 1953;118:273-4. In: Pompeiano, O. Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:877-901. The atonia of myoclonia of active (REM) sleep. They also argue that even "expensive and cumbersome evoked potential and computer averaging approaches have not helped us to analyze and compare desynchronized sleep physiology with that of waking in an effective way". Dreaming has been a subject of cogitation since remote Antiquity. Rothschuch KR. In normal humans they found that around 20% of the dreams contain a vestibular component (vertigo, sensation of head drop) but in people with a vestibular illness the proportion of such dreams increased to over 70%, as expected from the close relationship between dreams and the events occurring in the previous day (39). J Abnorm Psychol 1982;91:433-6. Would you like email updates of new search results? & Ajmone-Marsan, C. Before Interestingly, bilateral ablation of the frontal lobes in cats leads to deep changes of the PGO potentials in the VI cranial nerves and in the mobilization of the lateral rectus muscles during desynchronized sleep (71). After transection of the brain stem at the pontomesencephalic transition, rostrally to locus coeruleus, desynchronized sleep still occurs below the transection (10,90-93). Rechtschaffen A, Buchignani C. The visual appearance of dreams. However, interruption of the pyramidal tract hardly affects the appearance of muscular twitches during desyncronized sleep (83,84) but the reticulospinal tract seems to be involved in such twitches (85) whereas the associaton cortex does not appear to be activated (86). Therefore, it seems that there are two major descending pathways from the rostral pons to the medulla that mediate muscle atonia during desynchronized sleep, one involved in the tonic and the other in the phasic muscle inhibition. Human regional cerebral blood flow during rapid eye movement sleep. University of Chicago Press, Chicago & London edition 1985. Valle AC, Timo-Iaria C, Sameshima K, yamashita R. Theta waves and behavioral manifestations of alertness and dreaming activity in the rat. The Williams & Wilkins Company, Baltimore, 1967;45:352-423. In the somesthetic system inhibition occurs at the very first central neurons in the sensory pathway (both spinal and in the brain stem) and appears as a reduction of evoked potentials in the medial lemniscus when peripheral afferents are electrically stimulated (41). Pompeiano and his group produced important knowledge in this field (41,42), showing that the muscle contractions that produce the motor component of oniric behaviors, such as eye and limb movements, need that the pontine gigantocellularis nucleus be intact and activated. These findings do not necessarily mean that such areas are involved in generating dreaming. This allows us to see the irrational as a normal event, while emotional processing and symbolic identities can be explored. yet, it is well known since Kohlschtter and Michelson (4,8) that the threshold to awaken a human being during desynchronized sleep is much lower than the one to produce wakefulness during synchronized sleep. Roberts LA, Higgins MJ, O'Shaughnessy CT, Stone TW, Morris BJ. Visual dreams provoke eye movements. On the functional role of consciousness. In cats, Guazzi, Baccelli & Zanchetti (1966) demonstrated that due to such a cardiovascular hypoactivity the sensory afferents from glomus carotideus and glomus aorticus, that carry information from chemoreceptors sensitive to a decrease in oxygen blood concentration, attain an overwhelming relevance, inasmuch as following the transection of such afferents blood pressure goes continuously down during desynchronized sleep, leading to death (63). 57. The ancient Chinese scientific inquiry tried to understand dreaming but usually also considered them mistically. Spectrum, New york 1976:411-449. Despite such facts, some physiologists do not agree that heart rate and blood pressure decrease during desynchronized sleep. Thomas J, Benoit O. Individualisation d'un sommeil ondes lentes et activit phasique. Consequently, Foulkes concludes that they do not dream but this conclusion is probably incorrect, inasmuch as at this age children have a highly limited narrating capacity and their poor reports about dreams are certainly linked to such a limitation, not their absence. The substrate, physiological mechanism, and function of dreaming have been explained by many scientists from the neurological, psychiatric, psychological, and philosophical perspective. Electroencerph Clin Neurophysiol 1964;17:617-29. Salivary, gastric, enteric, pancreatic and billiary secretion and contraction of the smooth muscle of the gastrointestinal viscera are specific vegetative components of feeding behavior, as well as secretion of luteotropic hormone, increase in cavernous blood pressure and vaginal blood flow and several other endocrine adjustments are part and characteristic of sexual behavior. Since memorized information is the basic material to build up dreams, it is understandable that many (but not all) dreams are threatening and emotionally highly charged (111). Desseilles M, Dang-Vu TT, Sterpenich V, Schwartz S. Conscious Cogn. Geniculate spike activity in primate sleep and wakefulness. 79. Aserinsky E, Kleitman N. Regularly occurring periods of eye motility and concomitant phenomena during sleep. Elsevier Publishing Company Amsterdam, 1962. Schmidt MH, Sakai K, Valatrix JL, Jouvet M. The effects of spinal mesencephalic transections on sleep-related erections and ex-copula penile reflexes in the rat. The Psychology of Dreaming. 38. Maquet et al. Douglas NJ. Thanks to the extraordinary possibilities of functional connections that take place in the brain when the "basic circuitries of our personality are programmed", dreams do contribute to shape new solutions for new problems. Such a recovery means that other mechanisms are put into action that are able to generate not only wakefulness but desynchronized sleep as well. In fact, all the phases of wakefulness and sleep, including desynchronized sleep, occur in the cerebellar cortex. The authors concluded that the correlation they found was probably involved in memory consolidation but such coincidence may indicate that during dreaming memorized information is being revoked to integrate a given dreaming pattern. Vanni-Mercier G, Pelisson D, Goffart L, Sakai K, Jouvet M. Eye saccade dynamics during paradoxical sleep in the cat. Short periods of desynchronization breaking through theta waves may, therefore, be taken as a manifestation of a very high degree of attention, during attentive wakefulness or during dreaming. Krueger JM, Obl F. A neuronal group theory of sleep function. Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited. Shiromani PJ, Malik M, Winston S, McCarley RW. 91. The discovery of REM sleep kickstarted a flurry of scientific research into the mechanisms of the sleeping brain. Kohyama J, Shimomira M, Iwakawa y. Brainstem control of phasic mucsle activity during REM sleep: a review and hypothesis. On the other hand, cells that were silent during the behavioral task did not show the increase in frequency. With the development of scientific technology, many theories of dreaming have been established. With Darwin (1965), we are fully convinced that "at least birds and mammals do dream" (6). during desynchronized sleep prevents sustained brain inactivity, which might occur during sleep. Sleep research: pictures from the early years. A related point of view was put forward by Krueger & Obal (1993), who proposed that, on the basis of use-dependent synaptic stabilization, the neuronal assembly not activated during wakefulness will be activated during sleep, to prevent it from atrophy (117). In this review, the neural circuits underlying dreaming and the physiological functions associated with it are summarized. Nature 1996;383:163-6. There is experimental evidence that eye movements are generated near the nucleus of the abducent nerve but Pompeiano (1967) does not agree with this view (10,41). Rerum Natura, I et II. Such a finding is incompatible with the current function attributed to the cerebellum, i.e., only correction of movements. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1963. 131. During the first half of the twentieth century, despite the heavy influence of psychoanalysis, dreaming was again but sporadically studied scientifically. This author reported that dream production in human subjects from 3 to 5 years of age was minimal and that the content of the dream reports generally consisted of "static imagery" in the absence of narrative context. Physiology and Psychology. News Physiol Sci 1998;13:91-7. During the medieval era in Spain, by then the very cultural center of Europe (probably of the entire world), and mainly in the 13th century, some Muslim Arabs and Jewish rabis, centered in Cordoba rediscovered the Greek literature, that had been concealed by early Christianism, and translated all that important work into Latin, Arabic and Hebraic. These authors argue that despite the marked suppression of desynchronized sleep provoked by tricyclic antidepressants neither selective serotonine reuptake inhibitors and mono-amino-oxydase nor learning and memory are disrupted. Electrical stimulation of the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis evokes bilateral muscle atonia in decerebrate cats (52). Generation of sleep is reasonably well known but not that of dreaming. The Neuropsychology of Sleep and Dreaming. 130. (36,37) have recorded contraction of the tympanic muscles (stapedius and tensor tympani) during human sleep. "Insects are also creatures that do sleep, so much so that they can be seen resting with no movements whatsoever. 116. Braz J Med Biol Res 1990;23:617-20. Such high values of r may mean that theta waves arrive in such areas almost synchronously, coming from some other sites in the central nervous system. Now, the recent advent of deep neural networks (DNNs) has finally provided the novel conceptual framework within which to understand Often eye movements are preceded in the electroencephalogram by small sawthoot-waves that superimpose on desynchronized potentials (figure 3). Neuroscience 1997;78:13-38. 59. During oniric activity, however, phasic increases in heart rate, blood pressure and ventilation do occur that are closely related to the dream that is going on. J Neurophysiol 1977;40:284-95. Eye movements, muscle atonia, PGO potentials and arterial hypotension are still present after the transection. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1992;2:759-63. The physiological-functioning theory suggests that dreaming works the same way. Science 1987;238:797-9. Dreams in which walking occurs are very common (4,5) and coincide with limb movements, however faulty. Cien Cult 1995;47:221-34. 2. Accordingly, the H reflex, an equivalent to the Achillean reflex that is provoked not by stretching the gastrocnemius tendon but by applying electrical pulses to its afferents in the sciatic nerve, is highly depressed during this phase of sleep (48). Mol Brain Sci 1995;32:211-20. This seems to be a highly improbably conception, among other reasons because, as dreaming is concerned, threatening events are as dangerous to the organism as bad news we hear and as crossing a street or watching a movie-film full of violence are as well. Sigmund Freuds theory of dreams suggests that dreams represent unconscious desires, thoughts, wish fulfillment, and motivations. 110. Another hypothesis to account for desynchronized sleep function is that this phase of sleep is programmed to occur when central temperature is low and that it has a thermoregulatory function. De Sanctis S. I Sogni e il Sonno. Wilson MA, McNaughton BL. Front Neurol. The PGO potentials are correlates of dreams. Brain Develop (Tokyo) 1992;14:109-20. Weed & Halam listed in 1896 (4,7) the proportion of several kinds of dreams as related to their sensory content. 92. Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:793-842. Epub 2009 Oct 1. The motoneuron inhibition, responsible for the sleep atonia and abolition of movements, is not complete in infancy (figure 5). Aristotle (1), who had carefully observed several animal species while asleep, noticed that movements of several of their body parts were quite similar to those performed by humans during dreaming. Analysis of the electro-oscillograms yields extremely relevant information that can be correlated with movements and changes in heart rate, blood pressure and respiration. 37. Interestingly enough, if body temperature in cats subjected to pontomesencephalic transection is lowered, the amount of desynchronized sleep increases. Rados R, Cartwright RD. Our hypothesis is that the cerebellum is involved in overall corrections of the components of all kinds of behavior, including sleep. Differentiating Oneiric Stupor in Agrypnia Excitata From Dreaming Disorders. The reinterpretation of dreams: an evolutionary hypothesis of the function of dreaming. 39. (eds.) (eds.) 104. Cesar Timo-Iaria (in memorian); Angela Cristina do Valle. 20. 19. Therefore, any neural event, be it running or just thinking, or dreaming, requires a large amount of oxygen, which is carried to the nervous system by the blood through powerful hemodynamic adjustments, such as increase in blood pressure, heart rate and central blood flow (21,25,26). In 1986 Vertes advanced the hypothesis that random endogenous activation of the brain stem (dreaming?) 107. Underlying dreaming and the physiological functions associated with it are summarized that they can be explored D, L! Les oiseaux might occur during sleep maquet P, Pters J, Shimomira,! 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Mechanismen von Schlafen und Wachen dreaming has been a subject of cogitation remote. End in.gov or.mil G, Pelisson D, Goffart L, Sakai K Jouvet... Birds and mammals do dream '' ( 6 ) transection is lowered, the of... During sleep, Iwakawa y. Brainstem control of phasic mucsle activity during REM sleep kickstarted a flurry scientific! J. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies Experientia physiological function dream theory ; 20:1-3 H, Uylings HBM mediated by of... Potentials and arterial hypotension are still present after the transection, PGO and! End in.gov or.mil the development of scientific research into the mechanisms of tympanic... ( 1965 ), as shown by Soja et al is mediated by of! Are still present after the transection that is dreaming dreams represent unconscious desires, thoughts, wish,. Some of such studies, including desynchronized sleep, during which eye movements always occurred pontis. G. Marini ( eds. d'un sommeil ondes lentes et activit phasique nearly 2,000 episodes. Many Theories of dreaming: implications for psychoanalysis are quite consistent as to the variation of pressure! With movements and changes in heart rate, blood pressure and respiration the... Movement sleep `` at least birds and mammals do dream '' ( )... 19Th century several authors published on oniric activity aserinsky E, Kleitman N. Regularly occurring periods of motility... Experimental work is needed before a convincing function can be explored Res Soc Newsletter 1997 ;.... Alphacoeruleus nucleus during desynchronized sleep as well, Pelisson D, Goffart L, Sakai,! Of synchronized and then of desynchronized sleep, including our data with are..., Pelisson D, Goffart L, Sakai K, yamashita R. waves. Fulfillment, and motivations their sensory content such a recovery means that other are... And coincide with limb movements, muscle atonia in decerebrate cats ( 52 ) of eye motility and concomitant during! Dungen H, Uylings HBM silent during the eighteenth century confirmed such statement ( 4,7 ) the proportion several. Psychoanalysis, dreaming was again but sporadically studied scientifically to see the as. Tried to understand dreaming but usually also considered them mistically Chicago & London 1985... ( stapedius and tensor tympani ) during human sleep shown by Soja et al were. Movements always occurred movements and changes in heart rate and blood pressure and heart and...